Glossary of Key Terms

access control—Hardware and software measures, such

as user IDs and passwords, used to control access to

information systems.

access point— An arrangement consisting of a device

connected to the Internet on one end and to a

router on the other end. All wireless devices link to

the Internet through the router. Usually, the router

is a Wi-Fi (802.11) router.

ActiveX—A Microsoft scripting language for small applications

for specific tasks.

ad hoc reports—Unplanned, special reports designed

to help solve specific problems; also called on demand

reports.

ADSL (Asynchronous DSL)—DSL Technology in

which the downstream communication (to the subscriber)

is several times greater than the upstream

communication (from the subscriber). See DSL.

adware—An application stored (usually surreptitiously)

on the hard disk of a visitor’s computer when downloading

an application. The application effects the

display of various advertisement on Web pages and

other viewed information and is considered annoying

by many people.

agent of change—Any person (such as an employee,

a consultant, or a board member) whose work

results in significant changes in the way workers

perform their jobs. Often, systems analysts are

agents of change because they drive companies to

take fuller advantage of information technology.

agile methods—Software development methods that

emphasize constant communication with clients

(end-users) and fast development of code, as well as

modifications as soon as they are needed.

algorithm—A sequence of steps one takes to solve a

problem. Often, these steps are expressed as mathematical

formulas.

analog signal—A continuous signal, for example a

human voice or the movement of the hands in an

analog watch, that represents different degrees of

mechanical or electrical power.

antecedent—The if component of an if-then rule

knowledge representation.

antivirus software—Software designed to detect and

intercept computer viruses.

applet—A small software application, usually written in

Java or another programming language for the Web.

application—A computer program that addresses a

general or specific business or scientific need.

General applications include electronic spreadsheets

and word processors. Specific applications are written

especially for a business unit to accommodate

special activities.

application generator—A software tool that expedites

the application development process. Often, the

term is synonymous with fourth generation language.

Modern application generators include graphical

user interfaces.

Application Service Provider (ASP)—A firm that

rents the use of software applications through an

Internet link.

application/data independence—A situation in

which an application can be developed to manipulate

data without regard to the physical organization

of the data in the files. This is achieved in the database

approach to data management.

application-specific software—A collective term for

all computer programs that are designed specifically

to address certain business problems, such as a program

specifically written to deal with a company’s

market research effort.

Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU)—The electronic circuitry

in the central processing unit of a computer

responsible for arithmetic and logic operations.

artificial intelligence (AI)—The study and creation

of computer programs that mimic human behavior.

This discipline combines the interests of computer

science, cognitive science, linguistics, and management

information systems. The main subfields of AI

are: robotics, artificial vision, natural language

processors, and expert systems.

artificial vision—A subfield of artificial intelligence

devoted to the development of hardware and software

that can mimic human vision.

Glossary

704 _ GLOSSARY

GLOSSARY _ 705

ASCII—(pronounced: AS-kee) American Standard Code

for Information Interchange, a computer encoding

scheme whereby each group of 8 bits (a byte)

uniquely represents a character.

ASP—See Application Service Provider.

assembler—A compiler for an assembly language.

assembly languages—Second-generation programming

languages that assemble several bytes into

groups of characters that are human-readable, to

expedite programming tasks.

asymmetric key encryption—Encryption technology

in which a message is encrypted with one key and

decrypted with another.

atomic transaction—A transaction whose entry is not

complete until all entries into the appropriate files

have been successfully completed. It is an important

data entry control. (Atom = Indivisible.)

audit trails—Names, dates, and other references in

computer files that can help an auditor track down

the person who used an IS for a transaction, legal

or illegal.

authentication—The process of ensuring that the person

who sends a message to or receives a message

from another party is indeed that person.

B2B—Business-to-business, a term that refers to transactions

between businesses, often through an

Internet link.

B2C—Business-to-consumer, a term that refers to transactions

between a business and its customers, often

through an Internet link.

backbone—The network of copper lines, optical fibers,

and radio satellites that supports the Internet.

Backup—Periodic duplication of data in order to guard

against loss.

backward chaining (backward reasoning)—The

processes in which an expert system searches the

conditions that would bring about the achievement

of a specified goal. For example, an ES uses

backward chaining to determine how long to

invest how much money in which stocks to

achieve a specified yield.

bandwidth—The capacity of the communications

channel; the number of signal streams the channel

can support, usually measured as number of bits per

second. A greater bandwidth also supports a greater

bit rate, i.e., transmission speed.

banners—Advertisements that appear on a Web page.

bar code—A series of wide and narrow lines that represents

data. Usually printed on product tags for ease

of data entry and the recording of shipment and

sales by a specific machine used to read the code.

barriers to entrants—Any and all of the measures

that a business can take to prevent potential competitors

from entering the market.

baseband link—A communications channel that allows

only a very low bit rate in telecommunications, such

as unconditioned telephone twisted pair cables.

batch processing—A mode of transaction processing

in which all the transactions of the same type for a

given period of time are collected, and then entered

into a computer system together and processed.

baud—After J.M. Emile Baudot, a French scientist; the

number of signals per second that a communications

channel can support.

benchmarking—The measurement of time intervals

and other important characteristics of hardware and

software, usually when testing them before a decision

to purchase or reject.

beta site—An organization that agrees to use a new

application for a specific period and report errors

and unsatisfactory features to the developer in

return for free use and support.

bill of materials—A list showing an explosion of the

materials that go into the production of an item.

Used in planning the purchase of raw materials.

bill presentation—Sending a bill (especially for telephone

use, electricity, and similar services) via email;

usually with an option to pay online by credit

card or bank transfer.

binary number system—A number system in which 2

is the base (rather than 10, which is the normal base

human beings use in everyday counting). Used in

computers.

biometric—A unique, measurable characteristic or trait

of a human being used for automatically authenticating

a person’s identity. Biometrics include digitized

fingerprints, retinal pictures, and voice. Used

with special hardware to uniquely identify a person

who tries to access a facility or an IS, instead of a

password.

bit—Binary digit; either a zero or a one. The smallest

unit of information used in computing.

bit map—The arrangement of bits representing an

image for display on a computer monitor or a paper

printout.

bits per second (bps)—The measurement of the

capacity (or transmission rate) of a communications

channel.

706 _ GLOSSARY

blackouts and brownouts—Periods of power loss or a

significant fall in power. Such events may cause

computers to stop working, or even damage them.

Computers can be protected against these events by

using proper equipment, such as UPS (uninterruptible

power supply) systems.

blog—A contraction of Web log. A Web site where participants

post their opinion on a topic or set of related

topics in chronological order.

bleeding edge—The situation in which a business

fails because it tries to be on the technological

leading edge.

bottom-up planning—An approach to planning based

on satisfying the needs of individual business units.

Reactive in nature.

brainstorming—The process of a group collaboratively

generating new ideas and creative solutions to

problems.

bridge—A device connecting two communications networks

that use similar hardware.

broadband—High-speed digital communication, sometimes

defined as at least 200 kbps. T1, Cable

modem, and DSL provide broadband.

browsers—Special software designed to search the Web

for specific sites and retrieve information in the

form of text, pictures, sound, and animation.

browsing—Using a special application called a Web

browser to move from one Web site to another.

bug—An error in a computer program. Despite a famous

story about a real insect that interrupted the work of

a 1940s computer, the word “bug” had been used for

“error” a long time before the advent of computers,

and has nothing to do with that event.

bus—The set of wires or soldered conductors in the computer

through which the different components

(such as the CPU and RAM) communicate. It also

refers to a data communications topology whereby

communicating devices are connected to a single,

open-ended medium.

business continuity plan—Organizational plan that

prepares for disruption in information systems,

detailing what should be done and by whom, if critical

information systems fail or become untrustworthy;

also called business recovery plan and disaster

recovery plan.

business intelligence (BI)—Information gleaned from

large amounts of data, usually a data warehouse,

which discovers not-yet-known patterns, trends, and

other useful information that can help improve the

organization’s performance.

business model—The manner in which businesses generate

income.

business planning—The general idea or explicit statement

of where an organization wishes to be at some

time in the future in terms of its capabilities and

market position.

business recovery plan (BRP)—See business continuity

plan.

buzzword—A new or existing word that takes on a very

specific meaning when used in a particular context.

Buzzwords are usually used to impress someone with

new jargon or to promote a product, service, or idea.

byte—A standard group of bits. In ASCII, a byte comprises

7 bits. In ASCII-8 and EBCDIC, a byte comprises 8 bits.

C2C—Consumer-to-consumer business. The term usually

refers to Web-based transactions between two consumers

via the servers of an organization, such a

auctions and sales. eBay is an example of a C2C site.

cache—From French, pronounced “cash.” A part of RAM

devoted to the most frequently used instructions

and data of a program for faster retrieval.

CASE (Computer-Aided Software Engineering)—

Software tools that expedite systems development.

The tools provide a 4GL or application generator for

fast code writing, facilities for flowcharting or dataflow

diagramming, data-dictionary facility, wordprocessing

capability, and other features required to

develop and document the new software. The terms

is much less popular now than it was in the 1980s

and early 1990s.

cash management systems—Information systems

that help reduce the interest and fees that organizations

have to pay when borrowing money, and

increase the yield that organizations can receive on

unused funds.

cathode-ray tube (CRT)—A display (for a computer or

television set) that uses an electronic gun to draw

and paint on the screen by bombarding pixels on

the internal side of the screen.

CD-ROM (Compact Disc Read-Only Memory)—A

compact disc whose data were recorded by the manufacturer

and cannot be changed.

centralized architecture—Information systems architecture

in which all applications and data are stored

in a single computer.

centralized IS organization—Organizational structure

that includes a corporate information systems

team to whom all units turn with their information

systems needs.

central processing unit (CPU)—The circuitry of a

computer microprocessor that fetches instructions

and data from the primary memory and executes

the instructions. The CPU is the most important

electronic unit of the computer.

GLOSSARY _ 707

certificate authority (CA)—An organization that

issues digital certificates, which authenticate the

holder in electronic business transactions.

champion—An executive with much clout who supports

a project and endeavors to muster support

from top management. A champion is important for

the success of a project, such as developing a new

information system.

channel (link, path)—The guiding or nonguiding

environment in which communications signals are

transmitted.

character—The smallest piece of data in the data

hierarchy.

chargeback—A method used to manage the expenses

involved in rendering information system services.

The greater part of the expense is charged to the

budget of the business unit that ordered it.

chief executive officer (CEO)—The top leader in an

organization, to whom a small group of executives

reports.

chief information officer (CIO)—The highest-ranking

IS officer in the organization, usually a vice president,

who oversees the planning, development, and

implementation of IS and serves as leader to all IS

professionals in the organization.

chief security officer (CSO)—also called Chief

Information Security Officer (CISO), the highestranking

officer in charge of planning and implementing

information security measures in the organization,

such as access codes and backup procedures.

chip—A flat piece of silicon in which electronic circuitry

is integrated.

ciphertext—A coded message designed to authenticate

users and maintain secrecy.

circuit switching—A communication process in which

a dedicated channel (circuit) is established for the

duration of a transmission; the sending node signals

the receiving node; the receiver acknowledges the

signal and then receives the entire message.

client/server—An information system arrangement in

which one large computer holds large databases that

are tapped by the users of smaller local microcomputers,

but much discretion and the creation of the

applications that manipulate the data are in the

hands of the users. The larger computer is the server,

while the local computers are the clients.

clock rate—The rate of repetitive machine cycles that

a computer can perform; also called frequency.

Measured in GHz.

closed system—A system that stands alone, with no

connection to another system.

coaxial cable—A transmission medium consisting of

thick copper wire insulated and shielded by a special

sheath of meshed wires to prevent electromagnetic

interference. Supports high-speed telecommunication.

Common Gateway Interface (CGI)—Special software

used in Internet servers that allows the capture of

data from a form displayed on a page and the storage

of the data in a database.

communications channel—Any medium that supports

the transmission and reception of data and

information. May be a guiding channel, such as

wires, or an unguiding channel, such as the atmosphere

or space. Also called communications link and

communications path.

communications protocol—The set of rules that govern

data communications. When more than two

parties participate in the communication, it is also

called network protocol.

competitive advantage—A position in which one

dominates a market; also called strategic advantage.

compiler—A program whose purpose is to translate

code written in a high-level programming language

into the equivalent code in machine language for

execution by the computer.

composite key—In a data file, a combination of two

fields that can serve as a unique key to locate specific

records.

compression (data compression)—The restorage or

communication of data, using special software techniques,

so that the new file takes up significantly

less space on the storage medium, or takes less time

to communicate over a channel.

computer virus (virus)—Destructive software that

propagates and is activated by unwary users; a virus

usually damages applications and data files or disrupts

communications.

Computer-Aided Design (CAD)—Special software

used by engineers and designers that facilitates engineering

and design work.

Computerized Numeric Control (CNC)—Control

by computers that take data and create instructions

that tell robots how to manufacture and assemble

parts and products.

conclusion—The then component of an if-then rule in

knowledge representation.

consumer profiling—The collection of information

about individual shoppers in order to know and

serve consumers better.

708 _ GLOSSARY

control unit—The circuitry in the CPU that fetches

instructions and data from the primary memory,

decodes the instructions, passes them to the ALU

for execution, and stores the results in the primary

memory.

controls—Constraints applied to a system to ensure

proper use and security standards.

conversion—The process of abandoning an old information

system and implementing a new one.

cookie—A small file that a Web site places on a visitor’s

hard disk so that the Web site can remember something

about the visitor later, such as an ID number

or user name.

cost/benefit analysis—An evaluation of the costs

incurred by an information system and the benefits

gained by the system.

Critical Success Factors (CSFs)—Processes and their

results that are critical to the success of business

units. One approach to defining requirements for

information systems is the outlining of CSFs by

managers.

cultural differences—The many ways in which people

from different countries vary in their tastes, gestures,

treatment of others, attitudes, and opinions.

custom-designed software—Software designed to

meet the specific needs of a particular organization

or department; also called tailored software.

Customer Relationship Management (CRM)—A set

of applications designed to gather and analyze information

about customers.

customized application—A computer program

designed especially for an organization, to satisfy

particular business needs.

cut-over conversion—A swift switch from an old

information system to the new.

cybermall—A virtual shopping mall on the Web.

DASD (Direct Access Storage Device)—An external

storage medium that allows direct storage and

retrieval of records from stored files. Example: magnetic

disks and optical discs.

data—Facts about people, other subjects, and events.

May be manipulated and processed to produce

information.

data communication—The transmission and reception

of digitized data in the computer, between the

computer and its peripheral devices, and between

computers. Data communication over a distance is

called telecommunication.

Data Definition Language (DDL)—The part of the

database management system that allows the builder

of a database to define the characteristics of fields

and records, and the relationships among records.

data dictionary—The part of the database that contains

information about the different sets of records

and fields.

data entry control—Software controls whose purpose

is to minimize errors in data entry, such as rejecting

a Social Security number with more or fewer than

nine digits.

data management module—In a decision support

system, a database or data warehouse that allows a

decision maker to conduct the intelligence phase of

decision making.

Data Manipulation Language (DML)—The part of a

database management system that allows the user to

enter commands to retrieve, update, and manipulate

data in a database.

data mining—Using a special application that scours

large databases for relationships among business

events, such as items typically purchased together on

a certain day of the week, or machinery failures that

occur along with a specific use mode of the machine.

Instead of the user querying the databases, the application

dynamically looks for such relationships.

data modeling—The process of charting existing or

planned data stores and flows of an organization or

one of its units. It includes charting of entity relationships

diagrams.

data processing—The operation of changing and

manipulating data.

data range—The amount of data from which information

is extracted, in terms of the number of organizational

units supplying data or the length of time

the data cover.

data redundancy—The existence of the same data in

more than one place in a computer system.

Although some data redundancy is unavoidable,

efforts should be made to minimize it.

data store—Any form of data at rest, such as a filing

cabinet or a database.

data warehouse—A huge collection of data that supports

management decision making.

data warehousing—Techniques to store very large

amounts of data in databases, especially for data

mining.

database—A collection of shared, interrelated records,

usually in more than one file. An approach to data

management that facilitates data entry, update, and

manipulation.

database administrator (DBA)—The individual in

charge of building and maintaining organizational

databases.

GLOSSARY _ 709

database approach—An approach to maintaining data

that contains a mechanism for tagging, retrieving,

and manipulating data.

database model—The general logical structure in

which records are stored within a database.

database management system (DBMS)—A computer

program that allows the user to construct a database,

populate it with data, and manipulate the data.

debugging—The process of finding and correcting

errors in software.

decision—A choice that must be made from between

two or more alternatives.

decision support system (DSS)—Information system

that aids managers in making decisions based

on built-in models. DSSs comprise three modules:

data management, model management, and dialog

management.

demodulation—The transformation of an analog signal

(from a phone line) into a digital signal (so a

computer can understand it).

Denial of Service (DoS)—The inability of legitimate

visitors to log on to a Web site when too many malicious

requests are launched by an attacker.

desktop publishing—Using word processing programs

and high-quality printers to prepare books and pamphlets

for publication.

DFD (data flow diagram)—A graphical method to

communicate the data flow in a business unit.

Usually serves as a blueprint for a new information

system in the development process. The DFD uses

four symbols, for entity, process, data store, and

data flow.

dialog module—The part of a decision-support system,

or any other system, that allows the user to interact

with it.

digital certificates—Computer files that serve as the

equivalent of ID cards.

digital signal—An expression of discrete, noncontinuous

signals produced by electrical or electromagnetic

bursts of different power levels. Only a digital signal

can represent bits, and therefore be processed by a

computer.

digital signature—An encrypted digest of the text that

is sent along with a message, that authenticates the

identity of the sender and guarantees that no one

has altered the sent document.

Digital Subscriber Line (DSL)—Technology that

relieves individual subscribers of the need for the

conversion of digital signals into analog signals

between the telephone exchange and the subscriber

jack. DSL lines are linked to the Internet on a permanent

basis and support bit rates significantly

greater than a normal telephone line between the

subscriber’s jack and the telephone exchange. The

service is not offered everywhere.

direct access—The manner in which a record is

retrieved from a storage device, without the need to

seek it sequentially. The record’s address is calculated

from the value in its logical key field.

directive—An order to take a certain action.

disaster recovery plan—See business continuity plan.

Distributed Denial of Service (DDoS)—Multiple login

requests from many computers to the same Web

site, so that the Web site is jammed with requests

and cannot accept inquiries of legitimate visitors.

domain name—The name assigned to an Internet server.

dot-matrix printer—A printer on which the print

head consists of a matrix of little pins; thus, each

printed character is made up of tiny dots.

downloading—The copying of data or applications

from a computer to your computer, for example

from a source on the Internet to your PC.

downtime—The unplanned period of time during

which a system does not function.

drill down—The process of finding the most relevant

information for executive decision making within a

database or data warehouse by moving from more

general information to more specific details, such as

from performance of a division to performance of a

department in the division.

driver—The software that enables an operating system

to control a device, such as an optical disc drive or

joystick.

DVD (Digital Video Disc)—A collective term for several

types of high-capacity storage optical discs, used

for data storage and motion pictures. Also called

Digital Versatile Disc.

dynamic IP number—The IP number assigned to a

computer that is connected to the Internet intermittently

for the duration of the computer’s connection.

EBCDIC (Extended Binary Coded Decimal

Interchange Code)—A binary computer encoding

scheme devised by IBM. Consists of 8 bits per byte,

each byte uniquely representing a character.

e-commerce—Business activity that is electronically

executed between parties, such as between two businesses

or between a business and a consumer.

economic feasibility study—An evaluation of whether

the benefits outweigh the costs of a proposed information

system over the life of the system.

710 _ GLOSSARY

Economic Order Quantity (EOQ)—The optimal quantity

of a specific raw material that allows a business to

minimize overstocking and save cost without risking

understocking and missing production deadlines.

effectiveness—The measure of how well a job is

performed.

efficiency—The ratio of output to input; the greater the

ratio, the greater the efficiency.

electronic agent—A computer program that searches

Internet sites and other resources in a telecommunications

network to respond to a request made by

its user.

Electronic Data Interchange (EDI)—A set of software,

standards, and telecommunications technology

designed to support the interchange of electronic

documents between organizations.

Electronic Funds Transfer (EFT)—The electronic

transfer of cash from an account in one bank to an

account in another bank.

electronic superhighway—The Internet. Often called

“the information superhighway.”

e-mail (electronic mail)—The exchange of messages

between computers either in the same building or

over great distances.

encoding scheme—A convention of representing characters

with another, small, set of characters or special

marks. Morse code, EBCDIC, and ASCII are

encoding schemes.

encryption—The conversion of plaintext to an unreadable

stream of characters, especially to prevent a

party that intercepts telecommunicated messages

from reading them. Special encryption software is

used by the sending party to encrypt messages, and

by the receiving party to decipher them.

enterprise application systems—Information systems

that fulfill a number of functions together,

such as inventory planning, purchasing, payment,

and billing.

Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP) system—An

information system that supports different activities

for different departments, assisting executives with

planning and running different interdependent

functions.

entity—Any object about which an organization chooses

to collect data.

entity relationship diagram (ERD)—One of several

conventions for graphical rendition of the data elements

involved in business processes and the logical

relationships among the elements.

ergonomics—The science of designing and modifying

machines to better suit people’s health and comfort.

Ethernet—The design, introduced and named by Xerox,

for the contention data communications protocol.

exception reports—Periodic or ad hoc reports that flag

facts or numbers that deviate from preset standards.

execution error—A program error in which a certain

operation cannot be carried out, such as division

by zero.

executive information system (EIS)—An information

system that extracts high-level organizationwide

information from large amounts of data stored

in the business’ databases. Typically, an EIS presents

information graphically as charts and diagrams,

allowing for a quick grasp of patterns and trends.

Also called executive support system.

expert system (ES)—A computer program that mimics

the decision process of a human expert in providing

a solution to a problem. Current expert systems deal

with problems and diagnostics in narrow domains.

An ES consists of a knowledge base, an inference

engine, and a dialog management module.

expert system shell—An expert system without a

knowledge base. A tool that eases the building of an

expert system by prompting the designer for facts

and relationships among the facts that are built into

the shell as a knowledge base.

expertise—The skill and knowledge, primarily gained

from experience, whose input into a process results

in performance that is far above the norm.

Extensible Markup Language (XML)—A programming

language that tags data elements in order to

indicate what the data mean, especially in Web pages.

external data—Data that are collected from a wide

array of sources outside the organization, including

mass communications media, specialized newsletters,

government agencies, and the Web.

extraction phase—The stage of data warehouse building

in which the builders create the files from transactional

databases and save them on the server that

will hold the data warehouse.

extranet—A network, part of which is the Internet,

whose purpose is to facilitate communication and

trade between an organization and its business

partners.

fault-tolerant computer system—A computer system

that has extra hardware, software, and power

lines that guarantee that the system will continue

running even when a mishap occurs.

feasibility studies—A series of studies conducted to

determine if a proposed information system can be

built, and whether or not it will benefit the business;

the series includes technical, economic, and

operational feasibility studies.

GLOSSARY _ 711

field—A data element in a record, describing one aspect

of an entity or event.

file—A collection of records of the same type, for different

entities or events.

File Transfer Protocol (FTP)—Software that allows

the transfer of files over communications lines.

firewall—Hardware and software designed to control

access by Internet surfers to an information system,

and access to Internet sites by organizational users.

first generation languages—Machine languages.

flash memory—A memory chip that can be rewritten

and hold its content without electric power. Thumb

drives, as well as ROM are made of flash memory.

flowchart—A graphical method used to describe an

information system, including hardware pieces and

logical processes. Over 30 symbols represent various

types of operations, processes, input and output

devices, and communication.

foreign key—In a relational database: a field in a table

that is a primary key in another table. Foreign keys

allow association of data between the two files.

forward chaining (forward reasoning)—The

process in which an expert system looks for an outcome

under the constraints of given conditions.

Example: A medical ES accepts the conditions (age,

temperature, etc.) of a patient and provides a diagnosis

of the patient’s disease.

fourth-generation languages (4GLs)—High-level

programming languages that allow the programmer

to concentrate on what the program should do,

rather than on how it should do it. 4GLs contain

many preprogrammed functions to expedite code

writing.

fulfillment—Picking, packing, and shipping after a customer

places an order online.

full-duplex—Telecommunications whereby a party can

transmit and receive data at the same time while the

other party also transmits and receives.

fuzzy logic—A rule-based method used in artificial

intelligence to solve problems with imprecise conditions.

The method uses membership functions to

characterize a situation.

Gantt chart—A list of organizational activities, along

with their start and completion times.

gateway—A device that connects two communications

networks, each consisting of different hardware

devices, for example an IBM- and a Macintosh-based

network.

general purpose application software—Programs

that serve varied purposes, such as developing decision-

making tools or creating documents; examples

include spreadsheets and word processors.

genetic algorithms—Sets of algorithms used in artificial

intelligence to solve complex problems for

which the number of models for a solution is huge.

The algorithms are either eliminated or combined

with other algorithms to eventually produce the one

that can solve the problem optimally. Called genetic

algorithms because the method mimics the evolution

of species over millions of years through

changes in their genetic codes.

Geographic Information System (GIS)—

Information system that exhibits information visually

on a computer monitor with local, regional,

national, or international maps, so that the information

can easily be related to locations or routes on

the map. GISs are used, for example, in the planning

of transportation and product distribution, or the

examination of government resources distributed

over an area.

global village—A term used to refer to our world in

the age of information and telecommunications,

because people are highly accessible to each other.

glocalization—The planning and designing of global

Web sites so that they also cater to local needs and

preferences.

graphical user interface (GUI)—Icons, frames, scroll

bars, and other graphical means that make software

easy and intuitive to learn and use.

Group Decision Support System (GDSS)—A set of

personal computers and one large screen with special

software that facilitates brainstorming, the

examination of ideas, voting, and reaching a decision

by a group of decision makers.

groupware—Any of several types of software that

enable users of computers in remote locations to

work together on the same project. The users can

create and change documents and graphic designs

on the same monitor.

hacker—A person who accesses a computer system

without permission.

half-duplex—Telecommunications whereby the receiving

party must wait until the transmitting party finishes,

before transmitting to the party. A party cannot

receive while transmitting or transmit while

receiving.

hand-held computers—Computers that are small

enough to fit in the palm of a person’s hand; also

called palm computers or personal digital assistants

(PDAs).

712 _ GLOSSARY

hard disk—A stack of several rigid aluminum platters

usually installed in the same box that holds the CPU

and other computer components; may be portable.

help desk—The group of small teams who specialize in

troubleshooting problems in different areas of an

information system—hardware, software, communications,

and so forth.

heuristics—Rules that cannot be formulated as a result

of ordinary, proven knowledge but only through

experience.

hierarchical database—A database model that generally

follows an upside-down tree structure, in which

each record can have only one parent record.

holistic planning—Organizational planning that

focuses on the big picture, including objectives and

goals; also called top-down planning.

home page—The opening page of a Web site.

honeypot—A duplicate database on a server connected

to the Internet to trace an intruder. The server is

dedicated specifically for detection of intrusions,

and is not productive. The honeypot is there to be

attacked in lieu of a productive server. The traces

can be used to improve security measures and possibly

catch the intruder.

honey token—A bogus record in a database on a honeypot

or productive server which is likely to draw an

intruder’s attention. If the intruder changes the

record, the security officers know that the server has

been attacked and can fix vulnerabilities.

horizontal information interchange—The sharing

of information by organizations in a horizontal

market.

horizontal market—A market in which all players

buy or sell the same type of product, making them

competitors.

hotspot—an area, usually of 300-feet radius, in which a

wireless device can connect to the Internet. The

hotspot is created by installing an access point consisting

of a device connected to the Internet on one

end and to a router on the other end. All wireless

devices link to the Internet through the router.

hypermedia—Perhaps the Web’s most essential ingredient,

this feature enables a computer user to access

additional information by clicking on selected text

or graphics displayed on-screen.

hypertext—Computer-generated text that allows the

reader to click designated words (typically colored or

boldfaced) to open a linked file that elaborates on

the topic, or to invoke images or sound associated

with the topic.

Hypertext Markup Language (HTML)—A programming

language for Web pages and Web browsers.

Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP)—Software that

allows browsers to log on to Web sites.

If-then rules—A method of knowledge representation

that holds the facts in the form of if-then statements;

also called production rules.

imaging—The transformation of text and graphical

documents into digitized files. The document can be

electronically retrieved and printed to reconstruct a

copy of the original. Imaging has saved much space

and expense in paper-intensive business areas.

impact printer—A printer that reproduces an image

on a page using mechanical impact.

implementation—The phase of implementing a new

information system that includes training and conversion;

also called delivery.

indexed file—A data file that contains an index, a

directory-like table that indicates where each record

physically resides on the storage medium by the

value of its key field. The records are usually organized

sequentially, so that retrieval can be carried out

either sequentially, without using the index, or

through the index. To retrieve a record, a lookup is

performed to find the record’s location.

indexed sequential organization—A method of

file organization that allows direct access to specific

records in a sequential file by using an index of

key fields.

inference engine—The part of an expert system that

links facts and relationships in the knowledge base

to reach a solution to a problem.

information—The product of processing data so that

they can be used in a context by human beings.

information center—The unit within an organization

that provides coordination, control, and support for

all aspects of the organization’s information systems

and its users.

information map—The description of data and information

flow within an organization set out in a

visual chart or map.

information overload—A situation in which people

have too much information from which to choose

for their problem solving and decision making.

information system—A computer-based set of hardware,

software, and telecommunications components,

supported by people and procedures, to

process data and turn them into useful information.

information systems auditor—The information systems

professional whose job is to find erroneous or

fraudulent transactions and investigate them; also

called electronic data processing auditor.

GLOSSARY _ 713

information technology (IT)—Refers to all technologies

that collectively facilitate construction and

maintenance of information systems.

ink-jet printer—Inexpensive type of printer that

sprays ink to create the printed text or pictures of a

computer-generated document.

input—Raw data entered into a computer for processing.

input device—A tool, such as a keyboard or voice

recognition system, used to enter data into an information

system.

insourcing—Assigning an IS service function to the

organization’s own IS unit. The term was invented

to emphasize a decision not to outsource.

instant messaging—The capability for several online

computer users to share messages in real time; also

called chatting online.

integrated circuits—Electronic semiconductors within

computers that integrate a large number of circuits

into one silicon chip.

intelligence—(1) The ability to learn, think, and

deduce; (2) The first phase in the decision-making

process: gathering relevant data.

intelligent agent—A sophisticated program that can

be instructed to perform services for human beings,

especially on the Internet.

interface—The connection of two systems to establish

interaction.

internal data—Data that are collected within the organization,

usually by transaction processing systems but

also through employee and customer surveys.

internal memory—The memory circuitry inside the

computer, communicating directly with the CPU.

Consists of RAM and ROM.

Internet—An international network of networks providing

millions of people with access to rich information

resources.

Internet domain—The part of an Internet address,

such as .com, .edu, or .gov, that is shared by many

users and indicates the particular community of

their owners.

Internet Protocol (IP) number—A unique number

assigned to a server or another device that is connected

to the Internet, for identification purposes

consists of 32 bits.

Internet Relay Chat (IRC)—Internet software that

allows remote users to correspond in real time.

Internet servers—The computers that are linked

directly to the Internet backbone and carry the files

accessed over the Internet.

Internet service provider (ISP)—An individual or

organization that provides Internet connection, and

sometimes other related services, to subscribers.

interorganizational information systems—

Systems that are shared by two or more organizations

to transfer data electronically.

interpreter—A programming language translator that

translates the source code, one statement at a time,

and executes it. If the instruction is erroneous, the

interpreter produces an appropriate error message.

intranet—A network using Web browsing software, that

serves employees within an organization.

IS architecture—The manner in which an organization’s

IS assets are deployed and connected.

IS infrastructure—The IS resources that an organization

owns, including hardware, software, and

telecommunications devices and lines.

IS planning—Planning for the deployment and for the

resources needed to develop and maintain information

systems.

Java—Object-oriented programming language that

allows Web browsers to download applets that can

run on any computer with any operating system.

join—The joining of data from multiple tables.

Joint Application Development (JAD)—A method

of systems development that facilitates analysis and

design by involving representatives of the prospective

users in all of the phases and by using prototyping

wherever possible.

Just In Time (JIT)—The manufacturing strategy in

which suppliers ship parts directly to assembly lines,

saving the cost of warehousing raw materials, parts,

and subassemblies.

key—A field in a database table whose values identify

records either for display or for processing. Typical

keys are part number (in an inventory file) and

Social Security number (in a human resources file).

knowledge base—The collection of facts and the relationships

among them that mimic the decision-making

process in an expert’s mind and constitute a

major component of an expert system.

knowledge engineer—A programmer whose expertise

is the extraction of knowledge from a domain expert

and the transformation of the knowledge into code,

that is, into the knowledge base of an expert system.

Knowledge engineers construct expert systems.

knowledge management—The combination of activities

involved in gathering, sharing, analyzing, and

disseminating knowledge to improve an organization’s

performance.

714 _ GLOSSARY

knowledge worker—Any worker who produces

information. The term roughly overlaps with

“professional.”

LAN (local area network)—A computer network confined

to a building or a group of adjacent buildings,

as opposed to a wide area network.

laser printer—A nonimpact printer that uses laser

beams to produce high-quality printouts.

learning organization—The concept of an organization

that accumulates knowledge through the experiences

of its employees. Information systems facilitate

learning by organizations.

leaves—The lowest-level records in a hierarchical database.

legacy system—An old information system still in use.

Usually, the term is used when contrasting such a

system with a new information system, or a new

type of information system.

level of detail—The degree to which the information

generated is specific.

Liquid Crystal Display (LCD)—A flat-panel computer

monitor in which a conductive-film-covered screen

is filled with a liquid crystal whose molecules can

align in different planes when charged with certain

electrical voltage, which either blocks light or allows

it to pass through the liquid. The combination of

light and dark produces images of characters and

pictures.

load balancing—The transfer of visitor inquiries from

a busy server to a less busy server.

logic bomb—A destructive computer program that is

inactive until it is triggered by an event taking place

in the computer, such as the deletion of a certain

record from a file. When the event is the occurrence

of a particular time, the logic bomb is referred to as

a time bomb.

logic error—A program error that occurs when the

logic of the program does not achieve its goals.

logical design—A translation of user requirements into

detailed functions of a proposed information system.

machine cycle—The four steps that the CPU follows

repeatedly: fetch an instruction, decode the instruction,

execute the instruction, and store the result.

machine language—Binary programming language

that is specific to a computer. A computer can execute

a program only after the program’s source code

is translated to object code expressed in the computer’s

machine language.

Mac OS—The family of Macintosh operating systems.

magnetic disk—A disk, or set of disks sharing a spindle,

coated with an easily magnetized substance to

record data in the form of tiny magnetic fields.

magnetic tape—Coated polyester tape used to store

computer data; similar to tape recorder or VCR tape.

Magnetic-Ink Character Recognition (MICR)—A

technology that allows a special electronic device to

read data printed with special magnetic ink. The

data are later processed by a computer. MICR is

widely used in banking. The bank code, account

number, and the amount of a check are printed on

the bottom of checks.

mainframe—A computer larger than a midrange computer,

but smaller than a supercomputer.

maintenance—Ironing out bugs that went undetected

in the final testing of a program and modifying a

program to meet new business needs.

management by exception—An approach for reducing

the amount of information that managers must

consume that allows managers to review only exceptions

from expected results that are of a certain size

or type.

management information system (MIS)—A computer-

based information system used for planning,

control, decision making, or problem solving.

manufacturing execution system—An information

system that helps pinpoint bottlenecks in production

lines.

Manufacturing Resource Planning (MRP II)—The

combination of MRP with other manufacturingrelated

activities to plan the entire manufacturing

process, not just inventory.

master production schedule (MPS)—The component

of an MRP II system that specifies production

capacity to meet customer demands and maintain

inventories.

Materials Requirement Planning (MRP)—

Inventory control that includes a calculation of

future need.

matrix organization—An organization in which managers

report to both a divisional executive and a

functional executive. For instance, the marketing

manager of the Manufacturing Division reports both

to the division’s president and to the corporate vice

president of marketing.

m-commerce—Mobile commerce, spawned by advances

in technology for mobile communications devices.

medium—Anything through which data are transmitted;

may be guiding or unguiding.

microcomputer—The smallest type of computer;

includes desktop, laptop, and hand-held computers.

GLOSSARY _ 715

microprocessor—An electronic chip that contains the

circuitry of either a CPU or a processor with a dedicated

and limited purpose, for example a communications

processor.

midrange computer—A computer larger than a

microcomputer but smaller than a mainframe.

migration—The move from old hardware or software

to new hardware or software. Migrating a legacy system

is the process of adapting the old system to

work more efficiently or more effectively, especially

when interfacing it with other systems.

MIPS—Millions of instructions per second.

mirror—An Internet server that holds the same software

and data as another server, which may be

located thousands of miles away.

mission-critical applications—Applications without

which a business cannot conduct its operations.

mission-critical hardware or software—Hardware

or software without which the business cannot operate

and survive.

model—A representation of reality.

model management module—A collection of models

that a decision-support system draws on to assist in

decision making.

modem (modulator/demodulator)—A communications

device that transforms digital signals to analog

telephone signals, and vice versa, for data communications

over voice telephone lines. Almost all of the

commercial modems currently offered on the market

also serve as fax devices, and are, therefore, called

fax/modems. (“Fax” comes from the Latin words fac

simile, “make alike” or “copy.”)

modulation—The modification of a digital signal (from

a computer) into an analog signal (for a phone line

to transmit).

multimedia—Computer-based technology that provides

information comprising text, images, motion

pictures, and sound from the same source.

multiplexer—A device that allows a single channel

to communicate data from multiple sources

simultaneously.

multiprocessing—The mode in which a computer uses

more than one processing unit simultaneously to

process data.

multiprogramming—The capacity to allow several

people to use the same computer simultaneously via

different terminals.

multitasking—The ability of a computer to run more

than one program seemingly at the same time; it

enables the notion of windows in which different

programs are represented.

name-your-price auction—An online auction in

which participants post the prices they are willing to

pay for certain goods or services and sellers are given

the opportunity to meet the terms; also called a

reverse auction.

narrow band—A small-capacity communications

channel.

native application—A computer program originally

written for the specific type of computer that is running

it. As opposed to a native application, a crosssystem

application is one that was originally written

for one type of machine, but then adapted for a

newer computer. Usually, a cross-system application

exhibits slow or poor performance.

Natural Language Processors (NLPs)—Programs

that are designed to take human language input and

translate it into a standard set of statements that a

computer can execute.

network—A combination of a communications device

and a computer, or several computers, or two or

more computers and terminals, so that the various

devices can send and receive text or audiovisual

information.

networking manager—The individual who is

responsible for the acquisition, implementation,

management, maintenance, and troubleshooting of

computer networks throughout the organization.

network model—A type of database that has the ability

to store a record only once in the entire database,

while creating links that establish relationships with

several records of another type of entity.

network protocol—The set of rules that governs a network

of communications devices.

neural net—An artificial intelligence computer program

that emulates the way in which the human

brain operates, especially its ability to learn.

newsgroup—A group of people who share questions,

opinions, and information about a specific subject at

a specific site.

nonimpact printer—A printer that creates an image

on a page without pressing any mechanism against

the paper; includes laser, ink-jet, electrostatic, and

electrothermal printers.

nonvolatile memory—Storage media that keep data

and programs unchanged because they do not need

electric power to maintain the stored material.

Examples: ROM chips and magnetic disks.

notebook computer—A computer as small as a book,

yet with computing power similar to that of a desktop

microcomputer.

716 _ GLOSSARY

object code—Program code in machine language,

immediately processable by the computer.

Object Linking and Embedding (OLE)—The linking

of different applications to the same software so that

it can be addressed and used by any of these applications.

The object may be text, graphic, or audiovisual

material.

object-oriented programming (OOP)—A programming

method that combines data and the procedures

that process the data into a single unit called

an “object,” which can be invoked from different

programs.

OLAP (Online Analytical Processing)—A type of

application that operates on data stored in databases

and data warehouses to produce summary tables

with multiple combinations of dimensions. An

OLAP server is connected to the database or data

warehouse server at one end, and to the user’s computer

at the other.

online processing—Using a computer while in current

interaction with the CPU, so that the data are

processed as they are entered, as opposed to batch

processing.

open source software—Software whose source code

can be accessed by the general public.

open system—A system that interfaces and interacts

with other systems.

Open Systems Interconnection (OSI)—The dominant

standard that works as a general model for

wide area network protocols.

operating system—System software that supports the

running of applications developed to utilize its features

and controls peripheral equipment.

operational feasibility study—An evaluation made

to determine whether a new information system will

be used as intended.

operational managers—Individuals who are in charge

of small groups of workers.

opportunity—A potential increase in revenue, reduction

of costs, or gain in competitive advantage that

can be achieved using an information system.

Optical Character Recognition (OCR)—A way of

capturing data from source documents, in which

scanning devices read characters and transform

them into digital data processable by the computer.

optical disc—A disc on which data are recorded by

treating the disc surface so it reflects light in different

ways; also called a compact disc (CD).

optical fiber—A thin fiberglass filament used as a medium

for transmitting bursts of light that represent

bits. The most advanced physical communications

channel, now in use for data, voice, and image

telecommunication.

optical carrier (OC)—a family of several ultra speed

technologies using optical fibers. Usually, the standard

is marked as OC-3, OC-12, OC-48, etc., for

speeds of 3, 12, 48 gigabits per second, and higher.

optical tape—A storage device that uses the same principles

as a compact disc.

organizational culture—An umbrella term referring

to the general tone of a corporate environment.

output—The result of processing data by the computer;

usually, information.

output device—A device, usually a monitor or printer,

that delivers information from a computer to

a person.

outsourcing—Buying the services of an information

service firm that undertakes some or all of the organization’s

IS operations.

overhead cost—A general expense carried by all

departments that is considered essential to running

a company.

packaged software—General purpose applications

that come ready to install from a magnetic disk, CD,

or file downloaded from a vendor’s Web site.

packet—Several bytes that make up a part of a telecommunicated

message.

packet switching—A telecommunications method

whereby messages are broken into groups of fixed

amounts of bytes, and each group (packet) is transmitted

through the shortest route available. The

packets are assembled at the destination into the

original message.

palm computer—A computer that is small enough to

be held in a person’s palm; also called a hand-held

computer or personal digital assistant (PDA).

parallel conversion—Using an old information system

along with a new system for a predetermined period

of time before relying only on the new one.

parallel processing—The capacity for several CPUs

in one computer to process different data at the

same time.

parallel transmission—Transmission of more than

one bit at a time; usually the transmission of one

byte at a time via parallel channels. Such transmission

can take place only inside the computer or

between the computer and its physically close

peripheral equipment, such as a printer.

parameters—The categories that are considered when

following a sequence of steps in problem solving.

GLOSSARY _ 717

parent—In a hierarchical database, the data record to

which several records of a lower level are linked.

parity check—A method to reduce errors in data communication

both inside the computer and among

remote communications devices. An extra bit is

added to each transmitted byte to ascertain that the

number of 1s is odd (in an odd parity check) or even

(in an even parity check).

peer-to-peer LAN—A local area network (LAN) in

which no central device controls communications.

peer-to-peer file sharing—Software applications that

enable two Internet users to send and receive to

each other. The technology is highly objectionable

to organizations that sell copyrighted materials

because the software promotes violation of copyrights.

peripheral equipment—The additional equipment,

such as a printer and keyboard, connected to a

computer.

personal decision support system—A decision-support

system that is built for the individual knowledge

worker to use in his or her daily work.

Personal Digital Assistant (PDA)—A small handheld

computer. Many PDAs require the use of a

special stylus to click displayed items and to enter

handwritten information that is recognized by the

computer.

PERT chart—A chart showing events, the activities

required to reach the events, and the interdependencies

among activities. The events are usually completion

milestones.

phased conversion—Implementing a new information

system one module at a time.

piloting—A trial conversion in which a new information

system is introduced in one business unit

before introducing it in others.

pipelining—A technique in which one part of a CPU

can do its job while others do theirs, allowing faster

processing.

pixel (picture element)—The smallest picture element

addressable on a monitor. In an LCD monitor,

it is a triad of three transistors controlling the colors

of red, green, and blue that can be switched on and

off and kept on with varying amounts of electricity

to produce various colors and hues. In a CRT monitor,

the triad is made of phosphorous dots that are

excited by an electron gun.

plaintext—An original message, before encryption.

planning—Focusing on shaping the future as well

as monitoring and controlling processes within an

organization.

platform—Either the standard hardware or the standard

operating system that the organization uses.

The term has been used differently in different contexts

by IS professionals and trade journals.

plug-and-play—The ability of an operating system to

recognize a new attachment and its function without

a user’s intervention.

Point to Point Protocol (PPP)—A protocol for communication

between two computers (as opposed to

a network).

polling—A protocol in which a communications processor

conducts a continuous roll-call of the nodes.

port—A socket on a computer to which external

devices, such as printers, keyboards, and scanners,

can be connected.

portal—A site that offers a search engine and general

information such as weather, news, and stock market

quotations; Yahoo! is one example.

primary key—In a file, a field that holds values that

are unique to each record. Only a primary key can

be used to uniquely identify and retrieve a record.

primary memory (primary storage, main memory,

main storage)—The built-in memory chips in the

computer, made of transistors. The majority of the

memory is of the RAM type, and the rest is of the

ROM type.

privacy—The ability to control information about ourselves.

In a larger sense, “the right to be left alone.”

Information technology has made invasion of privacy

a major issue in our society, due to its ability to

collect, maintain, store, and manipulate huge

amounts of personal information.

Private Branch Exchange (PBX)—A computer-based

digital switching device that simultaneously handles

communications of internal voice telephones, computers,

and the external telephone network.

problem—Any undesirable situation.

process—Any manipulation of data, usually with the

goal of producing information.

production rules—A method of knowledge representation

that holds the facts in the form of if-then statements;

also called if-then rules.

productivity—Efficiency, when the input is labor. The

fewer labor hours needed to perform a job, the

greater the productivity.

program—A set of instructions to a computer.

programmable problem—A problem that can be

solved by a computer program.

programming—The process of writing software.

718 _ GLOSSARY

programming languages—Sets of syntax for abbreviated

forms of instructions that special programs can

translate into machine language so a computer can

understand the instructions.

proxy server—A computer program that serves as an

intermediary between to servers on the Internet,

often for the purpose of security or filtering out of

certain information.

project—The selection of certain columns from a table.

project management—The set of activities that is performed

to ensure the timely and successful completion

of a project within the budget. Project management

includes planning activities, hiring and managing

personnel, budgeting, conducting meetings,

and tracking technical and financial performance.

Project management software applications facilitate

these activities.

protocol—A standard set of rules that governs telecommunication

between two communications devices or

in a network.

prototyping—An approach to the development of

information systems in which several analysis steps

are skipped, to accelerate the development process. A

“quick and dirty” model is developed and continually

improved until the prospective users are satisfied.

public-key encryption—Encryption technology in

which a public key is used to encrypt and a private

key is used to decrypt.

pyramid model—A management structure in which

the CEO is at the top, a small group of senior managers

are one level down, a larger number of middle

managers are the next level down, and so forth.

query—An instruction to a database management system

to retrieve records that meet certain conditions.

RAID (Redundant Array of Inexpensive Disks)—A

set of magnetic disk packs maintained for backup

purposes. Sometimes RAIDs are used for storing large

databases.

Random Access Memory (RAM)—The major part of a

computer’s internal memory. RAM is volatile; that is,

software is held in it temporarily and disappears when

the machine is unplugged or turned off, or it may disappear

when operations are interrupted or new software

is installed or activated. RAM is made of

microchips containing transistors. Many computers

have free sockets that allow the expansion of RAM.

Rapid Application Development (RAD)—Methods

using I-CASE tools and 4GLs to quickly prototype an

information system. Often, software is reused in RAD.

rapid prototyping—Using software and special output

devices to create prototypes to test design in three

dimensions.

reach percentage—The percentage of Web users who

have visited a site in the past month, or the ratio of

visitors to the total Web population.

Read-Only Memory (ROM)—The minor part of a

computer’s internal memory. ROM is loaded by the

manufacturer with software that cannot be changed.

Usually, ROM holds very basic system software, but

sometimes also applications. Like RAM, ROM consists

of microchips containing transistors.

record—A set of standard field types. All the fields of a

record contain data about a certain entity or event.

reengineering (also: business process

reengineering)—The process by which an organization

takes a fresh look at a business process and

reorganizes it to attain efficiency. Almost always,

reengineering includes the integration of a new or

improved information system.

register—A fast memory location in the CPU, made of

special semiconductors and circuitry.

relational database—A database in which the records

are organized in individual tables (called “relations”).

In order for data from different tables to be

related, tables must contain foreign keys, which are

primary keys in other tables in the database. The

ease of building and maintaining a relational database

has made it more popular than the hierarchical

and network models.

relational operation—An operation that creates a

temporary table that is a subset of the original table

or tables in a relational database.

repeater—A device that strengthens signals and then

sends them on their next leg toward their next

destination.

replication—A process in which a full copy of an entire

database is stored at all the sites that need access to it.

Request For Information (RFI)—A request to vendors

for general, somewhat informal, information

about their products.

Request For Proposal (RFP)—A document specifying

all the system requirements and soliciting a proposal

from vendors who might want to bid on a project or

service.

resolution—The degree to which the image on a computer

monitor is sharp. Higher resolution means a

sharper image. Resolution depends on the number

of pixels on the screen and the dot pitch.

GLOSSARY _ 719

Return On Investment (ROI)—A financial calculation

of the difference between the stream of benefits

and the stream of costs over the life of an information

system.

reverse auction—An online auction in which participants

post the price they want to pay for a good or

service, and retailers compete to make the sale; also

called a name-your-price auction.

ring—A communications network topology in which

each computer (or other communications device) is

connected to two other computers.

RISC (Reduced Instruction Set Computer)—A computer

whose CPU includes only the most commonly

used functions. A reduced instruction set makes the

computer significantly faster than the same computer

with a full instruction set in its CPU.

robotics—The science and specialty of developing

machines that can mimic human movement.

Robots are highly automated machines controlled

by computers.

sales force automation—Equipping traveling salespeople

with notebook computers, PDAs, telecommunications

devices, and other devices that allow them

to communicate with the home office, retrieve and

store information from and to other computers

remotely, and fax information.

scalability—The ability to adapt applications as business

needs grow.

scanner—A device that scans pictures and text and

transforms them into digitized files.

schema—The structure of a database, detailing the

names and types of fields in each set of records, and

the relationships among sets of records.

second generation languages—Assembly languages.

security measures—Systems or application programs

that provide such services as tracking account numbers

and passwords, and controlling access to files

and programs.

Select—In a relational database, the selection of records

that meet certain conditions.

semantic nets—A method of representing knowledge

whereby facts are linked by relationships. The links

create a “net.”

semistructured problem—An unstructured problem

with which the decision maker may have had some

experience. Requires expertise to resolve.

sensitivity analysis—Using a model to determine

the extent to which a change in a factor affects an

outcome. The analysis is done by repeating if-then

calculations.

sequential access—A file organization for sequential

record entry and retrieval. The records are organized

as a list that follows a logical order, such as ascending

order of ID numbers, or descending order of part

numbers. To retrieve a record, the application must

start the search at the first record and retrieve every

record, sequentially, until the desired record is

encountered.

serial port—An outlet that accepts a cord for serial

transmission.

serial transmission—Transmission of streams of bits

one after another. This is the only kind of transmission

possible in telecommunications.

server—A computer connected to several less powerful

computers that can utilize its databases and

applications.

service level agreement—A document that lists all

the types of services expected of an outsourcing vendor

as well as the metrics that will be used to measure

the degree to which the vendor has met the

level of promised services. Usually, the client makes

the list.

simplex—Transmission from a device that can only

transmit, to devices that can only receive. Example:

radio and television broadcasts.

snail mail—Regular mail handled by the Postal Service

(as opposed to e-mail).

social engineering—Deceptive methods that hackers

use to entice people to release confidential information

such as access codes and passwords. Often,

the crooks misrepresent themselves as technicians

who need one’s password for fixing a problem in a

network.

software—Sets of instructions that control the operations

of a computer.

software piracy—The phenomenon of copying software

illegally.

SOHO (small office/home office)—The fastest growing

type of business, thanks to the availability of

inexpensive microcomputers and fax/modems. Also

called TOHO (Tiny Office/Home Office).

source code—An application’s code written in the original

high-level programming language.

speech recognition—The process of translating

human speech into computer-readable data and

instructions.

speech synthesizing—Technology that allows machines

to create sounds emulating a human voice.

720 _ GLOSSARY

spoofing—IP-spoofing is a deception for the purpose of

gaining access to a Web site, or deception of users to

make them think they are logged on to a certain

Web site when they are actually logged on to another.

E-mail spoofing is a fraudulent method to entice

people to send private or confidential information

to one e-mail address while they believe they are

sending it to another, legitimate address. The information

is later used fraudulently, usually to charge

the victim’s credit card.

spread spectrum—A narrow range of radio frequencies

that can be used to establish connection. The wireless

circuitry in computers tries the range of frequencies

until the best one is found for communication

with the other device. Thus, a frequency of 2.4 GHz

can actually be the range 2.4-2.45 GHz.

spyware—A small application stored surreptitiously by

a Web site on the hard disk of a visitor’s computer.

The application tracks activities of the user, including

visits to Web sites, and transmits the information

to the operator’s server.

star—A network topology in which many computers are

linked to a single computer through which all messages

must be passed.

static IP number—An Internet Protocol number permanently

associated with a device.

steering committee—A group of representatives from

a variety of key business units that establishes priorities

for systems development and implementation of

communications networks; prioritizes requests for

new systems; and commits funds to projects.

storage—The operation of storing data and information

in an information system.

Storage Service Provider (SSP)—A firm that rents

storage space for software through an Internet link.

strategic advantage—A position in which one dominates

a market; also called competitive advantage.

strategic information system—Any information system

that gives its owner a competitive advantage.

strategic managers—Individuals who make decisions

that affect an entire organization, or large parts of it,

and leave an impact in the long run.

structured data—Numbers and facts that can be conveniently

stored and retrieved in an orderly manner

for operations and decision making.

structured problem—A problem for whose solution

there is a known set of steps to follow. Also called a

programmable problem.

Structured Query Language (SQL)—The data definition

and manipulation language of choice for

many developers of relational database management

systems.

stylus—A penlike marking device used to enter commands

and data on a computer screen.

subsystem—A component of a larger system.

suite—A group of general software applications that are

often used in the same environment. The strengths

of the different applications can be used to build a

single powerful document. Current suites are usually

a combination of a spreadsheet, a word processor,

and a database management system.

supercomputer—The most powerful class of computers,

used by large organizations, research institutions, and

universities for complex scientific computations and

the manipulation of very large databases.

supply chain management (SCM)—The coordination

of purchasing, manufacturing, shipping, and

billing operations, often supported by an enterprise

resource planning system.

support—The maintenance and provision for user help

on an information system.

surfers—Computer users who have dial-up or faster

access to the Internet and who visit Web sites.

switching costs—Expenses that are incurred when a

customer stops buying a product or service from one

business and starts buying it from another.

switching techniques—Data communications mechanisms

that allow messages to be routed through a

variety of paths; if one is busy, another can be used.

symmetric encryption—Encryption technology in

which both the sender and recipient of a message

use the same key for encryption and decryption.

synergy—From Greek “to work together”. The attainment

of output, when two factors work together,

that is greater or better than the sum of their products

when they work separately.

syntax error—A program error that is equivalent to a

typo in regular written language.

system—An array of components that work together to

achieve a common goal or multiple goals.

system clock—Special circuitry within the computer

control unit that synchronizes all tasks.

system requirements—The functions that an information

system is expected to fulfill and the features

through which it will perform its tasks.

system software—Software that executes routine tasks.

System software includes operating systems, language

translators, and communications software.

Also called “support software.”

systems analysis—The early steps in the systems development

process, to define the requirements of the

proposed system and determine its feasibility.

GLOSSARY _ 721

systems design—The evaluation of alternative solutions

to a business problem and the specification of

hardware, software, and communications technology

for the selection solution.

Systems Development Led by Users (SDLU)—An

approach to systems development that reflects the

view that users, not information systems professionals,

are responsible for their information systems.

Systems Development Life Cycle (SDLC)—The oldest

method of developing an information system,

consisting of several phases of analysis and design,

which must be followed sequentially.

systems integration—Interfacing several information

systems.

systems integrator—An individual or an organization

that specializes in integrating several different hardware

items and software applications for business

operations. Often, the system integrator integrates

one new information system into the existing information

resources of the business.

systems thinking—The approach of thinking of an

organization in terms of its suborganizations or

systems; a framework for problem solving and decision

making.

tablet computer—A full-power personal computer in

the form of a thick writing tablet.

tactical managers—Individuals who receive general

directions and goals from their superiors and, within

those guidelines, make decisions for their subordinates;

also called middle managers.

target marketing—Promoting products and services

to the people who are most likely to purchase them.

TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet

Protocol)—A packet-switching protocol that is actually

a set of related protocols that can guarantee packets

are delivered in the correct order and can handle

differences in transmission and reception rates.

technical feasibility study—An evaluation of whether

the components of a proposed information system

exist or can be developed with available tools.

telecommunications—Communications over a long

distance, as opposed to communication within a

computer, or between adjacent hardware pieces.

telecommuting—The phenomenon of working from

home with the help of information technology,

rather than performing the same tasks in the office.

Also called telework.

teleconferencing—The ability to hold conferences

with a number of other people who are all geographically

remote from one another, via telecommunications

devices.

thin client—A computer without an external

storage device.

third generation languages (3GL)—Higher-level

programming languages that let the programmer

focus on a problem without being concerned with

how the hardware will execute the program; but

they require the programmer to detail a logical procedure

to solve the problem.

time bomb—Rogue code that is installed in a computer

system and starts destroying data files and applications

at a preset time.

time span—The period of time that a set of data covers.

time to market—The time between generating an idea

for a product and completing a prototype that can be

mass-manufactured; also called engineering lead time.

token passing—A telecommunications method whereby

a computer that needs to send a message captures

a “token,” consisting of a small group of bytes, and

releases the token with the message.

top-down planning—Planning that begins at the top

level of an organization and focuses on clear objectives

for the entire organization; also called holistic

planning.

topology—The physical layout of a network.

touch screen—A computer monitor that serves both as

input and output device. The user touches the areas

of a certain menu item to select options, and the

screen senses the selection at the point of the touch.

track pad—A device used for clicking, logging, and

dragging displayed information; the cursor is

controlled by moving one’s finger along a touchsensitive

pad.

trackball—A device similar to a mouse, used for clicking,

locking, and dragging displayed information; in

this case, the ball moves within the device rather

than over a surface.

transaction—A business event. In an IS context, the

record of a business event.

Transaction Processing System (TPS)—Any

system that records transactions.

transceiver—A communications device that can receive

messages, amplify them, and retransmit them to

their destination. Transceivers are used when the

distance is long, and the signal may weaken on its

way to the destination.

transformation phase—The stage at which database

builders modify data into a form that allows insertion

into the data warehouse.

transmission rate—The speed at which data are communicated

over a channel.

722 _ GLOSSARY

tansparency—A desired environment for the use of

applications and telecommunication whereby the

user is not exposed to the inner workings of the

software or to the fact that information may actually

come from different sources.

tree—A network topology in which each computer (or

other communications device) is connected to several

other computers in a shape that resembles the

branches of a tree.

twisted-pair-cable—Traditional telephone wires, twisted

in pairs to reduce electromagnetic interference.

Unicode—An international standard to enable the storage

and display of characters of a large variety of

languages on computers, such as Asian languages,

Arabic, and Hebrew.

Unified Modeling Language (UML)—An extensive

standard for graphically representing elements of

programming, specifically accommodating programming

in object-oriented languages and Web

technologies.

Uniform Resource Locator (URL)—The address of a

Web site. Always starts with http:// but does not have

to contain “www.”

Uninterruptible Power Supply (UPS)—A device

that provides an alternative power supply as soon as

a power network fails.

unique visitor pages—The number of different pages

at a Web site that a single visitor accesses.

unique visitors per month—The number of people

who visit a Web site each month; each person is

counted only once, even if that person visits the site

more than once during the month.

UNIX—A popular operating system, versions of which run

on machines from different manufacturers, and therefore

make the software almost machine-independent.

unstructured problem—A problem for whose solution

there is no pretested set of steps, and with

which the solver is not familiar—or is only slightly

familiar—from previous experience.

uploading—Copying from your computer onto another

computer.

utilities—Programs that provide help in routine user

operations.

value-added network (VAN)—A telecommunications

network owned and managed by a vendor that

charges clients periodic fees for network management

services.

vertical market—A market in which the goods of one

business are used as raw materials or components in

the production or sale process of another business.

videoconferencing—A telecommunication system that

allows people who are in different locations to meet

via transmitted images and speech.

virtual memory—Storage space on a disk that is treated

by the operating system as if it were part of the

computer’s RAM.

virtual organization—An organization that requires

very little office space. Its employees telecommute,

and services to customers are provided through

telecommunications lines.

virtual reality—A set of hardware and software that

creates images, sounds, and possibly the sensation of

touch that give the user the feeling of a real environment

and experience. In advanced VR systems,

the user wears special goggles and gloves.

Virtual Reality Modeling Language (VRML)—A

standard programming language that supports threedimensional

presentation on the Web.

virus (computer virus)—A rogue computer program

that infects any computers it is entered into. It

spreads in computers like a biological virus.

voice recognition—Technology that enables computers

to recognize human voice, translate it into program

code, and act upon the voiced commands.

volatile memory—Computer memory that cannot

hold the original data when the machine is

unplugged. Example: RAM.

WAN (Wide Area Network)—A network of computers

and other communications devices that

extends over a large area, possibly comprising

national territories. Example: the Internet.

Web page—A screenful of text, pictures, sounds, and

animation that the user encounters when using a

Web browser.

Web page authoring tools—Software tools that make

Web page composition easier and faster than writing

code by providing icons and menus.

Web site—The electronic presence of an organization or

individual on the World Wide Web. The site is composed

of Web pages and either shares a server with

other sites or has a dedicated server.

Webmaster—The person who is in charge of constructing

and maintaining the organization’s Web site.

What-if analysis—An analysis that is conducted to test

the degree to which one variable affects another;

also called sensitivity analysis.

GLOSSARY _ 723

wireless communication—Transmission of data as

radio signals without wires or telephone jacks.

Wireless Fidelity (Wi-Fi)—A name given to the IEEE

802.11 standard of wireless communication. Wi-Fi

technologies are used in hot spots, and in home

and office networks. Wi-Fi is usually effective for a

radius of 300 feet, but potentially up to 31 miles.

wireless LAN (WLAN)—A local area network that uses

electromagnetic waves (radio or infrared light) as the

medium of communication. In recent years almost

all WLANs have been established using Wi-Fi.

word (data word)—The number of bits that the control

unit of a computer fetches from the primary

memory in one machine cycle. The larger the word,

the faster the computer.

work cycle—A series of sequentially repeated activities

involved in providing a service or creating a product.

workstation—A powerful microcomputer providing

high-speed processing and high-resolution graphics.

Used primarily for scientific and engineering

assignments.

World Wide Web (Web, WWW)—The application of

the Internet that allows the posting and retrieval of

text, pictures, sounds, and motion pictures.

“Surfing” the Web is done by way of clicking on

marked text and pictures to move to other pages at

the same site or to a different site.

WORM (Write Once, Read Many)—A storage medium

that is loaded with software by the manufacturer, and

can never be overwritten. Example: CD-ROM.

worm—A rogue program that spreads in a computer

network.